By Dr. Eman Demerdash
Introduction
As billions of people prepare to gather around the world this summer to watch the 2026 FIFA World Cup, football’s relevance as a powerful stage for expressing identity, unity, and political meaning is especially visible. Football is one of the tools used by a region or nation to represent and preserve its identity during hardships and historical struggles such as occupations, either through local clubs or national teams. This connection is most evident in politically tense or multi-ethnic states, where matches often become moments in which broader struggles over recognition, autonomy, or independence are played out. As a global phenomenon, football has often served as the vehicle through which identities are expressed, contested, and negotiated. In many cases, football clubs become symbols of identity, transcending the domain of mere sports competition to represent cultural, historical, and political affiliations. This link between sport and identity becomes even clearer when football teams speak directly to the collective memories, emotions, and political experiences of their communities. This dynamic is especially visible in multi-ethnic or multi-regional states, where football teams often embody the aspirations, grievances, or simply the pride of specific communities. In this regard, the rivalries between clubs can mirror deeper societal divisions based on long-standing ethno-cultural or religious cleavages. Nowhere was this more evident than in former Yugoslavia, where football became more than a sport, and reflected, reinforced, and accelerated conflict between the Serbs and Croats.
Identities and Separatism
Identities can be interpreted as the self-definition of individuals either to themselves or by other individuals, and can take the form of a religious, cultural, ethnic, or national definition, or a combination of these. Additionally, identity can describe the personal beliefs, values, desires, and attitudes of the individuals that shape how they make decisions and preferences. Similarly, regional identity is related to the identity of inhabitants of specific regions, based on a common culture, history, or language. It is often regarded as one of the most important motives for political, social, and economic conflicts between regions and their national governments. When connected to football, these forms of identity often become more visible and publicly expressed, as clubs and fan groups provide a prominent space where narratives of belonging and difference are enacted.
Identity plays a significant role in separation movements because of its basis in shared heritage. As a consequence, regional leaders can easily form a separation movement by capitalising on the collective deprivation that the region has witnessed and agree on its goals and agenda. Separation movements or “separatism” are movements formed by a group of people aiming to separate their region from their country and gain independence. Such movements vary in their methods, strategies, and reasons for demanding independence.
These dynamics become especially visible when identity is expressed through popular culture, particularly football. In many societies, football clubs evolve into powerful symbols of collective belonging, carrying the emotional weight of regional, ethnic, and national identities. Former Yugoslavia offers one of the clearest examples of how football can mirror, reinforce, and even accelerate identity-based conflicts.
Football and Identity in Former Yugoslavia
Historically, one region where the link between football and ethnic identity was highly visible was former Yugoslavia. In Yugoslavia, the “Grand Four” football clubs —Red Star Belgrade, Partizan Belgrade, Hajduk Split, and Dinamo Zagreb—represented more than just sports teams. These clubs became symbols of their regions, reflecting the identities, struggles, and hopes of their communities. They showcased the tensions between regional and national identities in Yugoslavia, with their rivalries and fan bases highlighting historical grievances and desires for independence. Football in Yugoslavia was not just a game; it acted as a mirror for the country’s deeper social and political issues. The sport and its competitive manifestations reflected cultural, political, and historical divisions, showing how football can both reveal and amplify the challenges societies face.
Football in Eastern Europe during the 1980s and 1990s served as a powerful reflection of identity conflicts in the region. Two of the aforementioned football clubs, Red Star FC in Serbia and Dinamo Zagreb in Croatia, played an especially influential political role for their respective nations. Alongside Partizan FC in Serbia and Hajduk Split in Croatia, these clubs formed the “grand four” teams of Yugoslav football until the country’s breakup in the early 1990s. Under communist rule, citizens had little free choice in their daily lives, but they could choose which football club to support. Partizan FC was seen as a military sports club, a state project mainly supported by the soldiers. On the other hand, Red Star, representing Belgrade, was sometimes seen as anti-regime and more of a Serbian club than a Yugoslav one. Red Star FC also garnered support from Serbs who lived in other Yugoslav states. After the death of Josip Tito and the rise of nationalist identities within the Yugoslav republics, young fans, freed from communist constraints, started to use offensive songs and slogans during the matches. The tension between the “grand four” fans at that time was more political than football-related, as it stemmed from a conflict over identity.
Later on, any achievement for Red Star FC began to be seen as an achievement for the Serbian nationality and identity itself, which became clear when the team won the European Club Championship in 1990. This match was played in Italy, and although the team included players from various Yugoslav ethnicities, Red Star FC was distinctly a Serbian club, due to which its fans displayed nationalist songs, slogans, and flags adorned with historic Serbian symbols. That was a direct message that a success for this club was a Serbian success and did not belong to the other Yugoslav states or identities. Another reason why football in Serbia became part of politics was because football fans themselves were often also involved in politics and the military. The more successful a team became, the more attention it attracted—not just to the game itself, but also to the political events and messages unfolding among its fans in the stadium galleries. This contributed to Red Star FC becoming seen as a symbol of the Serbian identity.
The case was similar in Croatia, represented by Dinamo Zagreb, which played a role in preserving Croatian identity in the 1990s. The most famous incident between the two clubs occurred during their match in May 1990. This match was supposed to take place at Dinamo’s stadium Maximir but was canceled as a result of ethnic clashes between the fans of the two teams—Dinamo’s “Bad Blue Boys” and Red Star’s “Delije”. The violence erupted before the match, with Croatian fans supporting their nationalist leader’s push for independence clashing with nationalist Serbian fans, echoing a battle between the Serbian and Croatian identities. The Croatian fans invaded the pitch and fought with the Serb-dominated police, who were attacking Dinamo’s fans. Even Dinamo’s team captain, Zvonimir Boban, was seen attacking the police force, defending a Dinamo fan under assault. After this incident, Boban was banned for six months and stated that he was ready to risk his life for the sake of the Croatian cause. This day became known as “the day the war started”.
The rivalry between Red Star FC and Dinamo Zagreb revealed how football reflected the political and national conflicts in Yugoslavia. At that time, Yugoslavia was already experiencing a breakdown of its federal institutions, with rising nationalist parties in each republic challenging Belgrade’s control. Many citizens in Croatia and Serbia no longer saw the Yugoslav state as legitimate, and their frustrations with the federal government often appeared first in stadiums, where matches became a space to openly express political resistance and regional loyalty. What happened on the field, and especially in the stands, was never just about sport. Instead, fan behavior, symbols, and chants became expressions of deeper struggles over identity, autonomy, and recognition. These matches created a public stage where ethnic tensions were displayed openly, showing how strongly Serbs and Croats were redefining themselves in opposition to one another.
Conclusion
As the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated, football mirrored this fragmentation. The open hostility between the two clubs signaled the weakening bonds of the federation and foreshadowed the country’s eventual breakup. After independence, Croatia and Serbia continued to build their national identities partly through football, using their clubs and national teams to express narratives of sovereignty, pride, and historical memory.
In other parts of the world, football similarly reflects identity struggles, showing that the Yugoslav case is not unique. Clubs like FC Barcelona in Spain continue to express Catalan cultural and political identity, while the Celtic–Rangers rivalry in Scotland reflects long-standing religious and national divisions. In Greece, AEK Athens carries the memory of refugee heritage, and in the Middle East, the Palestinian national team has become a symbol of collective identity under occupation. These examples demonstrate that football often serves as a stage where historical grievances, national aspirations, and political tensions are voiced, making the link between sport and identity a global phenomenon.
The patterns present in the Yugoslav case can thus still be seen in other regions of the world, where football clubs and fan groups become platforms for larger debates over identity, autonomy, and political belonging. It is evident from contemporary cases that the connection between football and identity remains a powerful force, shaping how communities understand themselves and their position within the state.
About the author
Completed a PhD in Euro-Mediterranean Studies at Cairo University, with a thesis on The Political Role of Spanish Football Clubs in Catalan Separatism: A Comparative Study between FC Barcelona and Real Madrid CF. Holds a master’s in the same program, focused on far-right parties and European political challenges, and a bachelor’s in political science from Cairo University. Research interests include comparative political systems, elections, political parties, and the intersection of football and politics, with a focus on the Euro-Mediterranean, North Africa, and the Middle East.
European Studies Review 